OVERVIEW

The course provides an integrated overview of the fundamental principles of general pathology, focusing on the transition from the normal cell to the pathological cell.

The teaching activities cover:

• cellular adaptive responses
• intracellular and extracellular accumulations
• mechanisms of cellular injury
• cell death
• oxidative stress and redox systems
• exogenous causes of disease (physical, chemical, and environmental)

The aim is to understand how molecular and cellular alterations lead to tissue damage, disease, and organ dysfunction.

AIMS AND CONTENT

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

• understand the principles of cellular responses to stress
• distinguish between cellular adaptation, injury, and cell death
• explain the role of oxidative stress
• describe the main types of pathological accumulations
• analyze the impact of environmental causes of disease

AIMS AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

AIMS

At the end of the course, students will be able to develop an integrated understanding of the main processes that regulate the cellular response to stress and the mechanisms leading to the loss of homeostasis.

First, students will acquire a critical understanding of adaptive responses, recognizing them not only as morphological changes observable at the tissue level but also as the result of complex molecular and biochemical mechanisms. They will therefore be able to interpret phenomena such as hypertrophy, hyperplasia, atrophy, and metaplasia as the expression of cellular programs regulated by intracellular signaling pathways, and to understand how these responses initially represent an adaptive advantage but may evolve into pathological conditions in the presence of persistent stimuli.

Students will also be able to analyze intracellular and extracellular accumulation phenomena, understanding the mechanisms responsible for their development, including alterations in synthesis, degradation, or transport processes. They will be able to recognize the biological significance of these accumulations, interpreting them as indicators of cellular dysfunction and as potential intermediate stages between adaptation and irreversible injury.

A fundamental part of the learning objectives concerns the understanding of the mechanisms of cellular injury, with particular emphasis on ATP depletion, alterations in intracellular calcium levels, mitochondrial damage, and loss of membrane integrity. These events are closely interconnected and play a decisive role in the transition from reversible to irreversible injury. Students will be able to identify the critical points that lead to the so-called “point of no return.”

Within this framework, particular attention will be devoted to the central role of oxidative stress, including the study of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, their sources, and their interactions with cellular macromolecules. Students will understand how these molecules can exert damaging effects on lipids, proteins, and DNA, while also performing physiological roles in regulation and signaling under controlled conditions.

Students will also be able to distinguish the main mechanisms of cell death, understanding the differences between necrosis and apoptosis. They will interpret necrosis as an event associated with loss of cellular structure and inflammatory response, and apoptosis as an active, programmed process aimed at the selective elimination of damaged cells.

Finally, students will acquire the ability to analyze the main exogenous causes of disease, understanding how factors such as variations in pressure, temperature, radiation, and chemical agents can disrupt cellular homeostasis. In particular, they will be able to interpret the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the damage induced by these agents and the role of oxidative stress as a common amplifying factor.

Overall, these objectives will enable students to develop a unified view of pathology, conceived as a continuum ranging from adaptation to cellular injury and ultimately to cell death.

Learning outcomes

• a solid understanding of the fundamental mechanisms of cellular injury, adaptive responses, and the role of oxidative stress in pathological processes

• the ability to connect causes, mechanisms, and consequences of cellular injury, and to critically interpret basic pathophysiological phenomena

• the ability to distinguish between adaptive and pathological conditions and to evaluate the relative contribution of the different mechanisms involved

PREREQUISITES

To effectively engage with the course, students are expected to have a solid background in the main areas of basic biological sciences.

In particular, students should have knowledge of:

• cell biology, with reference to cell structure and function
• histology, for the understanding of tissue organization
• general and organic chemistry
• biochemistry, with particular emphasis on metabolic processes and macromolecules

In addition, a basic knowledge of human physiology is required, as it is essential for understanding the mechanisms of homeostasis and the transition from normal function to pathological dysfunction, which represents the core focus of the course.

TEACHING METHODS

The teaching activities will be carried out through frontal lectures supported by PowerPoint presentations.

SYLLABUS/CONTENT

• Introduction to general pathology and the concept of homeostasis
• Cellular adaptive responses (morphological and molecular)
• Intracellular and extracellular accumulations
• Mechanisms of cellular injury
• Cell death (necrosis, apoptosis, regulated necrosis)
• Oxidative stress and antioxidant systems
• Exogenous causes of disease (physical, chemical, and environmental)

RECOMMENDED READING/BIBLIOGRAPHY

"Le basi patologiche delle malattie". Patologia generale.

Vinay Kumar, Abul K. Abbas, Jon C. Aster. 

TEACHERS AND EXAM BOARD

Exam Board

STEFANIA VERNAZZA (President)

LESSONS

LESSONS START

Please consult the detailed schedule at the following link:
https://easyacademy.unige.it/portalestudenti/

For any updates due to possible changes, please refer to the specific Aulaweb page of the course.

Class schedule

The timetable for this course is available here: Portale EasyAcademy

EXAMS

EXAM DESCRIPTION

Oral examination

ASSESSMENT METHODS

Assessment of learning will take place through an oral examination, aimed at evaluating the level of knowledge of the topics covered, the ability to integrate the content, and the appropriate use of scientific terminology.