OVERVIEW

The course aims to provide a critical analysis of the evolution of chemical thought, from its pre-scientific roots to the epistemological debates of the 20th century. It does not merely present a chronology of discoveries, but explores shifting scientific paradigms and the consolidation of chemical language. The historical and social contexts that enabled the transition from alchemy to modern chemistry will be analyzed, with particular attention to Lavoisier's "Chemical Revolution" and the birth of atomic-molecular theory.

AIMS AND CONTENT

LEARNING OUTCOMES

The primary aim of this class is to provide students with a well-grounded historical and epistemological awareness of chemistry. The class seeks to offer students a critical and methodologically grounded historical understanding of the evolution of chemistry as a scientific discipline by analyzing the genesis, transformation, and progressive formalization of its fundamental concepts in relation to the development of experimental practices, analytical instruments, and the cultural and social contexts in which these concepts emerged. Particular attention will be devoted to the process through which fundamental concepts (element, substance, atom, bond, reactivity, periodicity) were constructed and to the ways in which they have evolved over time; to the progressive specialization of the various disciplinary areas; and to the role of chemistry in the development of modern science, as well as to the ways in which it has distinguished itself from the other natural sciences in terms of methods, practices, explanatory models, and languages.

AIMS AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the course, students will be able to:

• Knowledge and understanding: Identify the crucial milestones in the development of chemistry (from alchemy to Lavoisier's revolution, and from the Karlsruhe Congress to quantum mechanics).

• Applying knowledge and understanding: Utilize a historical approach to contextualize contemporary chemical problems and for future outreach, dissemination, or teaching activities.

• Making judgements: Critically analyze historical sources and interpret the evolution of theoretical models as responses to specific experimental anomalies.

• Communication skills: Present the evolution of chemical nomenclature and symbolism with terminological rigor.

TEACHING METHODS

lectures

SYLLABUS/CONTENT

General Chemistry Pathway

• Protochemistry and alchemy: Metallurgy, glass, pigments, and laboratory practices.

• Boyle and the critique of the Aristotelian tradition. The phlogiston theory and Lavoisier's chemical revolution.

• The laws of definite and multiple proportions (stoichiometric laws), Dalton, the Karlsruhe Congress, and Cannizzaro.

• Mendeleev and the construction of the periodic system.

• The evolution of the concept of the chemical element and the role of elements in the development of modern materials and technologies.

Analytical Chemistry Pathway

• The dawn and birth of qualitative chemical analysis: From cupellation and docimasy to systematic analysis.

• Quantitative chemical analysis: Elemental organic analysis, gravimetry, and volumetry (titration).

• The first instrumental techniques: From "microchemical" analysis to spectroscopy.

• Applications of chemical analysis between the late 19th and early 20th centuries: Selected case studies.

Physical Chemistry Pathway

• The birth of physical chemistry between the 18th and 19th centuries and the progressive consolidation of the discipline within the chemical sciences.

• The historical evolution of the concepts of the atom, molecule, and chemical bond through the development of the main models of matter.

• The development of thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, and electrochemistry as interpretive tools for chemical processes and energy transformations.

• From classical physics to quantum mechanics: The evolution of knowledge regarding the structure of matter between the 19th and 20th centuries.

Organic Chemistry Pathway

• The demise of vitalism and the birth of modern organic chemistry: From Berzelius to Kekulé through the French and German university systems.

• The discovery of isomerism: From Berzelius to Van 't Hoff's tetrahedral carbon.

• Reactivity and reaction mechanisms: From the description of transformations to the understanding of processes.

RECOMMENDED READING/BIBLIOGRAPHY

W.H. Brock, The Norton History of Chemistry (pubblicato anche come The Fontana History of Chemistry)

Appunti di un Corso di Storia della Chimica A. M. Maggio, R. Zingales ISBN 9788836231577

Storia della chimica Voll. 1 e 2 Salvatore Califano

- Volume 1 ISBN-10 8833921573 , ISBN-13 978-8833921570

- Volume 2 ISBN-10 8833921794 , ISBN-13 978-8833921792

TEACHERS AND EXAM BOARD

LESSONS

LESSONS START

According to the timetable reported here 

Class schedule

The timetable for this course is available here: Portale EasyAcademy

EXAMS

EXAM DESCRIPTION

The final exam aims to verify that the learning outcomes have been achieved through an oral examination (colloquio) before a board composed of the four official course instructors. The examination is divided into two parts:

1. Presentation of an In-Depth Study: The student must present a short paper or a slideshow (e.g., PowerPoint) on a specific topic agreed upon in advance with the instructors. This presentation must demonstrate the student's capacity for critical analysis and independent literature research on a case study or a crucial milestone in the history of chemistry.

2. Oral Examination: Following the presentation, the student will take an oral examination designed to assess their knowledge of the core topics covered during lectures by all instructors. Particular emphasis will be placed on the student's ability to cross-link and connect the different historical and critical pathways analyzed throughout the course.

Due to the logistical complexity of ensuring the simultaneous presence of all four instructors, the exam will be held exclusively by appointment. Students are required to contact the instructors to arrange both the examination date and the presentation topic at least ten days in advance.

ASSESSMENT METHODS

The final grade will be based on the following parameters:

• Quality of the Presentation: Capacity for synthesis, methodological rigor in the selection of historical sources, and clarity of delivery in discussing the chosen topic.

• Mastery of Course Content: Knowledge of the foundational milestones and breakthroughs in the history of chemistry.

• Critical Synthesis Skills: Ability to connect scientific discoveries with their broader academic, social, and institutional contexts.

• Terminological Accuracy: Correct use of scientific, historical, and epistemological language.

The final grade, awarded on a 30-point scale (out of 30), will result from a collective evaluation by the examination board. It will reflect the overall performance in the exam and the coherence demonstrated between the in-depth monographic presentation and the comprehensive knowledge of the core curriculum.