AIMS AND CONTENT

LEARNING OUTCOMES

The teaching is a basic biological teaching which aims to provide the fundamental functional principles of living matter. The course will provide the fundamental notions and topics of cellular and general physiology which can be applied for the study of the systems of animals.

AIMS AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

Participation in the planned educational activities (lectures) will enable students to acquire the general knowledge and fundamental concepts of Physiology that are necessary within the field of Environmental and Natural Sciences.

Specifically, students will be able to:

understand the basic mechanisms underlying the main physiological processes;

acquire the fundamental concepts of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, also in relation to the structural organization of the biological systems considered;

develop knowledge of the physiology of the main tissues and organs by integrating the different physiological functions.

Skills and Competencies Acquired at the End of the Course

By the end of the course, students are expected to have gained an overall understanding of physiological mechanisms, from the molecular and cellular levels to the level of the whole organism. In particular, students should understand the regulatory mechanisms that enable the different systems to function in a coordinated manner within the organism.

The competencies acquired will allow students to adequately understand international scientific literature in the field of general physiology and to follow advances in knowledge and research in this discipline.

TEACHING METHODS

The course is delivered through lectures.

Regular attendance is strongly recommended.

Students with a certified physical disability or specific learning disorder (SLD) registered with the University can find information about support services on the following webpage:

University of Genoa – Disability and SLD Services

These services are provided by the Student Inclusion Services for Students with Disabilities and Specific Learning Disorders (SLD).

Students may also contact Cristina Carbone (cristina.carbone@unige.it), the DISTAV faculty representative for disability support.

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SYLLABUS/CONTENT

Introduction to Physiology

Composition and functional/structural characteristics of living organisms. General principles of physiology and regulation of physiological activities: structure–function relationships, homeostasis, and feedback control. Organization of living organisms: cells, tissues, organs, systems, and apparatuses. Cell types. Environmental factors and animal adaptation to environmental conditions.

Body Fluid Compartments

External and internal environments. Composition of intracellular and extracellular fluids.

Membrane Physiology

Structure and composition of cellular membranes. Main biopolymers found in living organisms.

Transport mechanisms. Simple diffusion and Fick’s law. Ionic distribution and Gibbs–Donnan equilibrium. Osmosis. Facilitated diffusion: symport and antiport. Primary active transport: sodium–potassium pump, calcium pumps (SERCA and PMCA), and proton pumps. Secondary active transport of sugars, amino acids, and other molecules. Vesicular transport: endocytosis and exocytosis.

Chemical signal transduction. Membrane receptors: ion channel receptors, enzyme-linked receptors with protein kinase activity, and receptors coupled to membrane effectors. Second messenger pathways: protein kinase A pathway, inositol phosphate pathway, and calcium signaling pathway. Intracellular receptors.

Bioelectrical Potentials and Synaptic Transmission

Bioelectrical potentials. Equilibrium potential of an ion. Membrane potential; Nernst equation; Goldman equation; role of the Na⁺/K⁺ pump. Graded potentials: depolarizing and hyperpolarizing potentials. Action potential: phases and ionic mechanisms, depolarization (Hodgkin cycle), repolarization, and afterpotential. Action potential conduction: conduction velocity and unidirectionality. Coding of stimulus intensity.

Neurons: functional and morphological characteristics. Myelination. Saltatory conduction in myelinated fibers. Glial cells.

Synapses: electrical and chemical synapses. Neurotransmitters. Postsynaptic receptors: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors. Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. Synaptic integration: spatial and temporal summation. Presynaptic and postsynaptic inhibition. Synaptic plasticity. Neuromuscular junction.

Nervous System

Characteristics and evolution of the nervous system. Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems. Reflex arc; nerves. Overview of the Peripheral Nervous System (somatic and autonomic nervous systems).

Perception of the Environment

Sensory receptors: structural organization, characteristics, and general features. Conversion of sensory information: transduction (receptor/generator potential) and coding (generation and transmission of action potentials). Stimulus quality, intensity, and duration. Phasic and tonic receptors. Examples of mechanoreception, photoreception, and chemoreception.

Muscle Physiology

Motility: amoeboid movement, ciliary movement, and muscle contraction. Classification of vertebrate muscles: smooth, cardiac striated, and skeletal striated muscle.

Skeletal muscle: the sarcomere. Conversion of chemical energy into mechanical energy; excitation–contraction coupling; energy sources for contraction; motor unit; mechanics of muscle contraction (simple and tetanic isometric and isotonic contractions); muscle fiber types.

Smooth muscle (overview): mechanisms and factors regulating contraction.

Cardiac muscle (overview): pacemaker potentials; action potentials in conductive tissue and contractile fibers; mechanism of contraction.

Catch muscles in mollusks.

Cardiovascular System

Circulating fluids: hemolymph and blood. Morphological and functional organization of the circulatory system. Open and closed circulatory systems.

Blood: composition, functions, and capillary exchange. Respiratory function of blood: oxygen transport, respiratory pigments, hemoglobin, oxygen dissociation curve, functional differences between hemoglobin and myoglobin, and factors regulating hemoglobin affinity for oxygen, including carbon dioxide (Bohr effect), temperature, pH, and metabolites. Carbon dioxide transport in plasma and erythrocytes.

Heart: anatomical and functional aspects; characteristics of myocardial tissue. Electrical and mechanical activity of the heart: cardiac cycle, stroke volume, and cardiac output. Intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of cardiac activity: Frank–Starling law. Blood pressure. Blood vessels: roles of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, and veins. Capillary exchange. Examples of cardiovascular adaptations in giraffes.

Nutrition and Digestion

Energy and nutritional functions. Macronutrients and micronutrients. Trophic categories and feeding strategies in vertebrates and invertebrates. Intracellular and extracellular digestion. Mechanical and enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

Human digestive system: anatomical overview and functions of the digestive tract (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and intestine). Accessory glands: liver, pancreas, and salivary glands. Gastrointestinal motility: peristaltic and segmentation movements. Examples of digestive systems in vertebrates and invertebrates.

Energy Metabolism

Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins as energy sources; significance of ATP in cellular metabolism. Energy metabolism: caloric value of foods. Energy balance. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) and Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR): significance, measurement, and influencing factors. Allometric relationship between BMR and body mass. Respiratory quotient. Maximum Metabolic Rate (MMR).

Chemical Regulation of Physiological Functions

Endocrine system: general aspects. Classification of chemical messengers: neuroendocrine, endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine regulators. Chemical classification of hormones. Hormone synthesis and transport in blood.

Hormone receptors and mechanisms of action: membrane receptors and intracellular receptors. Regulation of hormone secretion. Hypothalamic–pituitary axis. Adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis. Main endocrine glands (pancreas, thyroid, parathyroid glands, and adrenal glands).

Endocrine disruptors (EDs): similarities and differences with hormones, patterns and mechanisms of action. History of endocrine disruptors. Effects during development and adulthood. Routes of exposure. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), atrazine, and organotin compounds.

Respiratory System

Cellular respiration and external respiration. Structures involved in gas exchange: gills, tracheae, and lungs. Cutaneous respiration. Human respiratory system. Phases of respiration. Mechanics of breathing: inspiration and expiration. Lung capacities. Control of respiration. Gas exchange with blood. Examples of respiratory systems in selected animal species.

Osmoregulation and Excretion

Exchange of water and solutes between internal and external environments. Osmotic stress and organismal responses.

Osmoregulatory organs in invertebrates: contractile vacuoles, nephridia, antennal glands, and Malpighian tubules.

Urine formation: filtration, reabsorption, and tubular secretion.

Vertebrate kidney: nephron structure; cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons; glomerular ultrafiltration, mechanisms and regulation; reabsorption of water, salts, and other substances; aquaporins; role of the loop of Henle in generating the medullary osmotic gradient.

Accessory osmoregulatory organs in vertebrates (rectal gland, salt glands, and gills).

Excretion of nitrogenous wastes: ammonotelic, uricotelic, and ureotelic organisms.

Body Fluids and Acid–Base Balance

Acid–base balance of extracellular compartments. Blood pH values in vertebrates. Major buffering systems, importance of the bicarbonate/carbonic acid buffer system, and the roles of the respiratory system and kidneys in maintaining acid–base balance.

Thermal Relationships Between Animals and the Environment

Environmental temperature and vital functions. Heat exchange between animals and the environment. Ectotherms and endotherms; thermoregulators and thermoconformers. Biological membrane fluidity and temperature: homeoviscous adaptation.

RECOMMENDED READING/BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Fisiologia Animale” A. Poli, EdiSES

“Fisiologia” C.L. Stanfield, EdiSES

“Fisiologia” R.M. Berne & M.N. Levy, CEA

TEACHERS AND EXAM BOARD

Exam Board

LAURA CANESI (President)

TERESA BALBI

ELENA GRASSELLI (President Substitute)

LAURA VERGANI (Substitute)

LESSONS

LESSONS START

Lessons  will take place in the first semester starting from  21 September 2020 and in the second semester starting fromn 15 febrary 2021 according to the timetable shown on http://www.distav.unige.it/ccsbio/.

The timetable of all courses can be consulted on https://easyacademy.unige.it/portalestudenti/

Class schedule

The timetable for this course is available here: Portale EasyAcademy

EXAMS

EXAM DESCRIPTION

Oral exam 

The examination procedure to assess the achievement of the objectives set will take place with an oral examination, and is always be conducted by a Commission consisting of at least two tenured teachers (or in cases limited by a tenured professor and a lecturer of the subject designated by the CCS) and has a duration of at least 20 minutes. The Commission, appointed in this way, is able to verify with high accuracy the achievement of the educational objectives of the teaching.

At least 2 exams will be available in the winter session (January-February) and 4 exams in the summer session (June, July, September).

Booking: https://servizionline.unige.it/studenti/esami/prenotazione

ASSESSMENT METHODS

The Commission accurately verifies the achievement of the educational objectives of the teaching by asking different questions related to the program actually carried out during the lessons of the course. For the final evaluation of the student the commission evaluates the following requirements: level of knowledge of the topics covered by the questions, exposure skills, ability to reason and link with other topics of the course. In the event that the training objectives are not achieved, the student is invited to better verify his / her knowledge and possibly to make use of further explanations by contacting the teacher in charge of the course.

FURTHER INFORMATION

Attendance at the course is strongly recommended.